Public Speaking 5

Correspondence Schools: Pioneers of Distance Education

H. DePalma
Fordham University

Origins of distance education
Distance education is not an invention of the 20th century. Despite the apparent recent popularity, the foundations for distance education can be traced back to the late 1800s when improvements in the postal service established a viable means for distribution of materials for correspondence courses (Clardy, 2009). What factors influenced the development of these early programs and what commonalities are there to those that exist today? The first major organization in America to use instruction by mail was the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle (CLSC). Initiated in 1878, the organization to provided an opportunity to acquire skills and knowledge for those who could not afford the time or money to attend college. Designed as a four-year correspondence course, it was one of the first attempts at distance learning. Kett (1994) described a shift away from the cultural focus of CLSC to a vocational focus. An early example was the Home Correspondence School (HSC) of Springfield, Massachusetts, which provided learners with the opportunity to study a variety of vocations in the comfort of their own homes. Advertisements from the early 1900s for the school promoted the fact that they realized fully that “their students are serious people struggling for self-improvement”. HSC boasted over 100 course offerings, including bookkeeping, public speaking and embalming.
Proprietary correspondence schools flourished between 1890 and 1930. These programs were the forerunner to today's distance-learning institutions. The rise in popularity of correspondence schools, over 200 in existence by 1910, coincided with licensing requirement imposed by states for many occupations (Kett, 1994). Among those who benefited most from the correspondence programs were individuals with a limited amount of formal education who sought job advancement and those living in remote rural areas. Students at the time did not need academic degrees, but rather they needed a body of information in order to pass a licensing exam. The correspondence schools were able to offer this type of instruction effectively. The most famous correspondence school, International Correspondence Schools of Scranton, Pennsylvania (ICS), was founded by Thomas Foster, an editor of a mining journal who was interested in improving safety in the coal mines. Initially, students were area coal miners seeking to pass state exams as inspectors or foremen, and by 1893 had grown to 3000 students.

Success of the early programs
Due to the concurrent expansion of the postal service, ICS was able to ship its materials almost anywhere in the country from very early in its existence. Instruction by mail allowed for a small number of instructors who possessed a specialized skill set, fewer than those required for traditional classroom instruction. Characterized by a strong marketing plan, the programs included provision of an installment plan. These installment plans to pay for tuition made the courses affordable. Often, the proprietary correspondence schools had ties to industry and were able to offer discounts or payment of tuition fees through payroll deductions. Employers could utilize enrollment in correspondence courses as a basis for promotion, in the hope for potential for reduction in turnover rate. Correspondence students viewed the programs as a job improvement opportunity, opening the way for promotion to positions of greater responsibility. Rather than comprehensive education, programs sought to enhance job-specific skills to advance students to a promotion. Correspondence programs overcame the geographical limitations of traditional classroom programs, providing the ability to attend part-time and from the convenience of home. For young families unable to afford to stop working to attend a full time program, this was a tremendous advantage. Kett (1994) described a high rate of students enrolled from small to mid-sized communities. He postulated that these moderate-size communities had local occupations which presented job advancement opportunities with minimal availability of classroom instruction for specialized trades.
The schools, however, did have a reputation for aggressive advertising, with an aim to convince prospective students that any occupation could be learned by mail. The companies employed sales staff, known as field agents. These individuals would canvas (and re-canvass) a geographic area for new students. Some programs were prone to fraud. The companies were renowned for massive advertising campaigns, and employed inspirational advertising, promoting a desire for self-improvement rather than simple course availability (Kett, 1994).

Linking the past with the present
Commonalities certainly exist between the driving factors between the development of the pioneer distance education programs and those we know today. Distance learning students, regardless of the era, enjoy the flexibility to take courses on a part-time basis and to work at their own pace. Both past and current programs took full advantage of the new delivery methods available at the time; the expanded postal service of the late 19th century and internet today.
Other challenges exist that span both timeframes, such as securing consistent student enrollment to maintain financial viability. There is an on-going struggle to attract new students to programs and improve retention rates. For ICS, a high attrition rate was addressed by the employment of field agents to recruit and re-recruit new/previous students. With an estimated completion time for courses ranging from 3-13 years for completion, approximately 85% of students enrolled did not complete the course in which they had enrolled (Kett, 1994). Many students would discontinue courses upon successful completion of a licensing exam.
The original correspondence programs had wide geographic distribution due to improvements in postal delivery, but this did not ensure equitable access to them. Although ICS offered programs geared toward women, such as the Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences, Kett (1994) reported a review of an ICS graduate list from1905 that appeared to be approximately 95% male, reflective of the attraction the program had for young males seeking career advancement. Language skills of immigrant populations often limited the ability to succeed in a correspondence course. Accessibility issues for distance education persist today, with concerns of the digital divide.
An advantage today’s distance learners have is the means to evaluate quality of programs more easily. Availability of information via the internet allows learners to “comparison shop” to make more educated decisions when evaluating programs. At the time of the original correspondence programs, there was little standardization and some had shady reputations and were prone to fraud. In current times, standards were developed for electronically-delivered programs in an effort monitor quality and provide a measure of protection for potential, including a set of best practices guidelines introduced in 1995 by WCET (Western Cooperative for Educational Telecommunication, an educational compact of 15 western states. (Howell & Baker, 2006).
I was intrigued to see that ICS still exists, albeit under a different name. The program changed to EducationDirect, and is currently known as Penn Foster Career School, described in their website (http://www.pennfoster.edu/index.html) as an independent school, offering courses in on-line or print format. Prospective students can start immediately, without waiting for a new semester to begin. Promotional materials encourage career training for job advancement to get ahead and “take the next step toward a brighter tomorrow”. A little inspirational advertising remains from the ICS origins!

References
Clardy A., (June, 2009) Distant, On-line Education: Effects, Principles and Practices; On-line submission, ERIC Document # ED506182.
Howell, S.L., Baker, K. (2006). Good (Best) Practices for Electronically Offered Degree and Certificate Programs: A 10-Year Retrospect. Distance Learning, 3(1), 41-48.
International Correspondence Schools of Scranton, Pennsylvania History: 1891 to the Present (2006). Retrieved April 24, 2010, from http://www.academic.scranton.edu/department/wml/icsfinding.htm
Kett, J. (1994). The pursuit of knowledge under difficulties: From self-improvement to adult education in America. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Penn Foster Career School Website (n.d.). Retrieved April 24, 2010 from http://www.pennfoster.edu/index.html

The History of Distance Learning

Distance Education from the Early 20th Century through the 90's
Karen Y. Carter

Education has come a long way from the little one room schoolhouse. From traveling for miles in all types of weather to correspondence courses to computers to video conferencing, the way people receive an education has been changing rapidly. Distance Education in particular is moving from going a distance to receive an education to receiving an education from a distance.. What are the roots of distance education and the impact on society caused by this method?

Distance learning started in the form of correspondence courses at the turn of the twentieth century. “Correspondence courses were heralded with promises similar to those for online distance learning. The result was a boom in the distance learning market, with leading universities like Columbia actively involved…Some state colleges remained active in correspondence education. Many of them are current leaders in distance learning because they were the best suited to take advantage of the new technologies as they arrived” (Olson, 2001). There are still a few schools which continue to offer correspondence courses. Parents who wish to home school their children, adults who wish to complete their high school education or begin a new career can find a myriad of schools to choose from.

Television brought a different dimension to distance learning which according to Olson (2001) did not meet expectations for making major changes in education. Television was used primarily by colleges and universities as part of the lecture course. Television stations such as PBS (Public Broadcasting Service) offer GED and literacy classes for adults as well as educational programs for children such as Sesame Street. Interaction between students and the lecturer was limited because of the technology except through the use of interactive video, therefore, most professors continued to rely on lectures.

With the advent of the internet, such interactions were made possible. Asynchronous methods were developed because of slow and unstable networks. “The Sloan Foundation sponsored experimentation with ALN (Asynchronous Learning Networks) that were designed to focus instruction on learners using cooperative and collaborative teaching techniques long used in elementary school education…Research in comparing differences inevitably found no significant difference, although some differences inevitably confounded by the quasi-experimental circumstances” (Olson, 2001).

A congressional commission, the Web-based Instruction Commission, chaired by former Senator Bob Kerry of Nebraska came about because of support for interactive Internet instruction. The commission concluded that the federal government should invest in Web-based instruction because of the potential for furthering national goals despite the fact that the requirement of interactive instruction made it unlikely that it would reduce educational costs significantly. The National Center for Education Statistics in their 1997 – 1998 report entitled, distance Education at Post-secondary Education Institutions, the use of distance learning activity has increased in recent years.

Indeed it has. The evolution of distance learning has led many colleges and universities as well as other companies to expand and/or add distance learning components to their offerings. In addition, there has been the establishment of several virtual universities such as Capella University and Western Governors’ University. Even accrediting agencies are taking notice. Jones International University, a for-profit school, founded by Glenn R. Jones, became the first completely online university to receive accreditation from a regional accrediting association.

The future of distance learning is uncertain except in the area of online distance learning. Online distance learning is changing the way education is delivered to adults particularly in the area of campus based instruction. We are just now beginning to see how online learning affects how adults learn and how society views the validity of online learning.

References

Bereiter, C. (2003). Introduction. Journal of Distance Education, 17(3), 1-7. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database.

Olson, J. (2001). Distance Learning and the Transformation of Higher Education. Reference Librarian, 35(74), 221. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database.

Education: A powerful weapon that fights opression

Education: A Powerful Weapon When That Fights Oppression

Amber Pina

Graduate School of Education

Fordham University

Delving deeper into the historical foundation of adult education a topic that proofed to be prominent then and is still prominent now is that education has been used and is being used as a means to free individuals from oppression. It is evident in the historical foundation of adult education that education was the number one tool used to fight oppression.

Stubbledfield & Kett found the following:

“Promoters for educational ventures were varied, motivated by their own cultural, political, and economic aspirations, as well as by the specific and local contexts that influenced their target participants. “Before the 1820’s, reform more commonly was a sideline for men, and some women who had social position, or at least gainful employment…For women it was virtually the only way to have public influence. (Walters, 1978; p. 13) (P.56)

Education in the past has been use as a tool to inform minorities of their social, moral, and human rights. Education through out history has been use to provide adults with a chance to gain a deeper understanding of the common bond that that unite us.

Addams (1961) found the following:

Perhaps these first days laid the simple human foundations which are certainly essential for continuous living among the poor: first, genuine preference for residence in an industrial quarter to any part of the city, because it is interesting and makes the human appeal; and second, the conviction, in the words of Canon Barnett, that the things which make men alike are finer and better than the things that keep them apart, and that these basic likenesses, if they are properly accentuated, easily transcend the less essential differences of race, language, creed, and tradition. (p. 73)

It is evident that through out history women and minorities were the major victims of oppression. Women and minorities through out different times in the history of adult education were denied the proper education, making education only available to men or the elite. The notion that we are all the same and possess an equal amount of potential that allows us to achieve success in life seemed like a dream to both women and minorities.

Stubblefield & Kett found the following:

However to the poorer white males who obtain citizenship and the women and minorities who did not, the limitations of “individual empowerment” were apparent at the outset. It seemed an ideology appropriate for the fortunate and prospesporous. (p. 59)

This perception that “only the fortunate and elite succed” is still very much alive today here in the U.S. All it takes is one look at a low-income urban neighborhood for one to experience the jail bars and close doors that this perception creates. The only difference is that now this perception has evolved into a belief that stops millions of Americans from achieving their dreams.

The single mother epidemic has swiped the urban areas in the U. S. and serves as a main opponent in the oppression of women today. Women are entering motherhood at a younger age with less education, which in return has made them the number one candidate for low income jobs.

In a survey performed by elearners.com (http://www.elearners.com), a web resource for educational dynamics, the following was found:

“A full 27% of respondents believed that single moms should accept lower-paying jobs, in exchange for more time at home with their children. Besides creating professional and financial dead ends for single mom families, low quality jobs are less stable – adding unemployment anxiety to an already difficult situation.”

According to Custodial Mothers and Fathers and Their Child Support: 2007, released by the U.S. Census Bureau in November, 2009, there are approximately 13.7 million single parents in the United States today, and those parents are responsible for raising 21.8 million children (approximately 26% of children under 21 in the U.S. today) and approximately 84% of custodial parents are women.

Looking at this statistic it becomes evident that women are still suffering from oppression here in the U. S. Their economical circumstances, lack of educational and work skills makes it impossible for these women to educate themselves, keeping them confined to low-income areas which in return also oppresses their children’s education.

Although numerous educational and financial programs are offered to single parent women, these women still remain at the bottom of our economical scale. I believe that if the education of these women were to be approach form a more holistic stand point, where these women are educated as complete human beings and are trained in a specific skill; this type of education will provide these women with a chance to take a more active role in their lives and in society.

Omolewa (2007) found the following:

With the attainment of political independence, various countries in Africa continued with the indigenous practice of inculcating moral and ethical val- ues in the learners and making education respond to the communal and social needs of the society, the development of a more appropriate, problem- solving educational curriculum and the promotion of lifelong education. (p. 595)

An educational approach that builds upon these women’s life experiences and that allows them to immediately apply their educational knowledge to the challenges they are facing in their environment allows these women to behave with self-sufficiency and confidence. This type of education raises their confidence in their ability to meet their daily challenges; it provides them with an opportunity to expand their perception of themselves and the world around them.

Omolewa (2007) found the following:

There is therefore the need to revisit the issue of Africanising the curriculum with a view to ensuring the contextuali- sation of learning which occurs where the content of the curriculum, and the methods and materials associated with it, are related directly to the experi- ence and environment of the learner. (p. 595)

In conclusion the study of the historical foundation of adult education has lead me to understand the power of education as a means for fighting oppression. As a society we are all responsible for the well being of each other, when education is shared in a way that allows the individual to flourished personally, professionally and as a member of society that individual is liberated from oppression.

References

Addams, J. (1961). Twenty years at hull-house. New American Library, a division of Pinguin Group (USA) Inc., NY, NY.

Omolewa, M. (2007). Traditional African modes of education: their relevance in the modern world. International Review of Education (2007) 53:593–612.

Stubblefield & Kett. (ch. 4) "The Role of Education in the New Republic" from the book Adult Eudcation in America.

Web References

http://www.elearners.com

Custodial Mothers and Fathers and Their Child Support: 2007

Reconciling the tradition of liberal education with adult literacy

Liberal education dates back from Ancient Greece, and its tenets form the basis of university education all over the world. However, one field it is less associated with is adult literacy. One reason for this concerns the context liberal education was born in. Elias and Merriam point out that its first students were not raised to be workers. They were born to lead, while slaves and servants toiled away (2004, 19). Is liberal education destined to rely on class division to prosper?

This divide is also visible when examining the idea of a literary canon- who decides what the essential texts are for students? For adults only just starting to read, the linguistic complexity of these texts might be extremely intimidating. Given that much of the liberal canon is over a hundred years old, how relevant are they for literacy learners today?

There is evidence of liberal education acting as a transformative force, however. Malcolm X is an example of someone who “read deeply in history [and] philosophy both of the West and of the East” (Elias & Merriam, 2004, 48). In fact, some of his deepest beliefs are echoed in the classic texts of liberal education. Listening to a reading of Plato's 'Allegory of the Cave' last semester certainly evoked images of one person being enlightened, a process that may well have taken place for Malcolm X through this grounding. In modern day learning, there are a few programs that are strongly influenced by liberal education. The Elderhostel provides no barrier to literacy other than a minimum age of 60. There is a focus on music, but the core belief that learning is truly lifelong gives purpose to those who thought they may never become literate.

The age of the liberal education movement itself means that some of the newer philosophies are more tailored to reflect the realities of modern life. John Dewey believed that the nature of its foundation means that it is prejudiced against those who study purely for economic reasons, or work in an essential but less mentally taxing profession like plumbing or construction. (Elias & Merriam, 2004, 19). This is difficult to counter given that Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle were all great thinkers and thus a movement fueled by their work posits the intellectual as an ideal. Students who left school without being able to read are justified to think that they do not belong in this model.

They are also entitled to believe that their illiteracy shuts them off from literature especially when liberal education places a strong emphasis on core texts. Key texts can be simplified- for example, Mary Shelley's Frankenstein has been adapted into a play script by Philip Pullman, intended for high school students- but the very nature of a list of set texts removes the ability of students to direct their own reading. If students believe that nothing but great literature is worth reading, but they have severe difficulty reading it, their efforts to become literate may be abandoned.

However, other parts of liberal education can and should be utilized to help adult literacy learners. For example, Socrates was very passionate about the right to question everything in search of the truth, and he saw education as a beacon against ignorance. While liberal education has sometimes been criticized for training socially myopic academics, Plato himself believed that the truth could only be found outside of the self. (Elias & Merriam, 2004, 18). I also believe that some of what is attributed negatively to liberal education applies to other educational philosophies- any philosophy can be undermined by human faults. Conversely, I am familiar with Evergreen State College as a good example of liberal education- students receive assessment cards with detailed comments rather than grades and thus there is no grade point average. This is even more evident for Elderhostel- no examinations, tests, or even homework are required (Elias & Merriam, 2004, 47)

Finally, with the advent of the internet, it has become easier for adult literacy students to access and get assistance with key texts. Sites like Project Gutenberg provide free classic literature so literacy learners can read without physical or logistical restrictions. The library has been available for many years yet funding has been cut- New York Public Library has certainly suffered, but this is a nationwide and global issue. As a physical library needs this funding to keep books available, fewer adults will be able to use this channel to get access to texts. Their time may also be restricted as a higher circulation is required- as libraries store fewer books, demand rises for the books that the library does have (and can afford to maintain/replace) and thus they will get less time to understand and appreciate a classic text. If liberal education is complimented by computer literacy, its relationship with adult literacy may well improve through technology.

References

Elias, J. & Merriam, S. (2004). Philosophical foundations of Adult Education, 3rd ed. Malabar, FL: Krieger.

Project Gutenberg website. Accessible at http://www.gutenberg.org/wiki/Main_Page

Purdue University Online Writing Lab (OWL) (April 1, 2010). APA formatting and style guide. Retrieved

from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01

Wollstonecraft Shelley, M. (1990). Frankenstein. Pullman, P., (Ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Self-Directed Learning: Individuals Universalizing Knowledge

Introduction
Historically, individuals have been learning on their own for centuries. In the past thirty years however, more formal research have been conducted on Self-Directed Learning (SDL) to make it among one of the many popular theories in adult education and learning. (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007) There are four ways in which learning can take place. It can be done in a formal, non-formal, informal and self-directed manner. The difference between each style in which learning take place, is the ownership of the learner in regards to what and how information is learned and the details of its execution. (Confessore & Kops, 1998) Self-directed learning (SDL) allows the learner to have total control. Throughout the years, many self-directed learners have been elevated to a level where they are respected by their peers and society as an expert.

Timeless Leaders
Greek philosopher Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle has influenced the theories and philosophies that make up the philosophical foundation of adult education. Each individual engaged in a quest to learn more and develop in wisdom. “Skills are more easily learned through experience, and, when an intelligently formed mind gains experience, it can acquire the skills needed for particular situations” (Elias & Merriam, 2005, p. 35). Other great autodidact leaders in time include Michelangelo, Thomas Edison, Malcolm X, and Bill Gates. These leaders have engaged in a quest to learn more for personal development which in turn had a major impact on the society in which they lived. This quest for lifelong learning is a key factor in the liberal educational movement. Malcolm X’s biography mentions that he was greatly inspired and influenced heavily on the works he have read on his own. X covered a variety of material from current affairs to the foundational history of his ancestral roots of Africa. During his lifetime, Malcolm X was fortunate to take a pilgrimage to the holy land of Mecca. There he learned the philosophies of the Eastern culture that changed his world view perspective in which he shared back with other in the West. (Elias & Merriam, 2005) “When asked about his alma mater, he could proudly say that books served as his college. His writing and his life manifested the power of ideas in forging a man and a movement.” (Elias & Merriam, 2005, p. 48) This was a transformational experience for him. All of his prior beliefs, values, and assumptions about white people and black unity were tested as his experience true harmony in Mecca. Since then there has been a substantial change in the way he make meaning of the world and interacted with others (King, 2005).

Commonality of Autodidactic Leaders
In a research study reported in the Journal of Humanistic Psychology, it had identified “40 most prominent characteristics of the biographies” of popular individuals in history who have become experts in various fields, but didn’t receive formal education beyond a high school diploma or GED. Pablo Picasso, Charlie Chaplin, Henry Ford, Walt Disney have influence American culture with their knowledge and talent. The effects have spread throughout the world and decades. Some of the top traits listed included life experiences, natural ability, self-directed learning and perseverance. Self-educated leaders are self motivated, have a sense of purpose, committed to their area of passion and not afraid to do thing differently. Life experience is their best teacher. (Gibbons et al., 1980)

Reaction to research
One can only become fascinated by the biographies of great philosophers and leaders of the world. Many did not complete a formal college education but made remarkable accomplishments. Self-Directed Learning is beneficial to individuals, schools and organizations. The statement is not to negate the value of receiving a college degree, but to show that a bachelor degree or higher is not the only determinate of someone’s potential and influence in the world. It provides for me the hope that I can accomplish anything if I am focus and learn all that I need to become successful. I plan to use this research to discover and develop way to ignite the inner teacher within individuals. The target population would not be limited to GED students, but open to everyone who is motivated for self development through self directed learning.

References
Confessore, S. J., & Kops, W. J. (1998). Self-directed learning and the learning organization: Examining the connection between the individual and the learning environment. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 9, 365-375.
Elias, J. L., & Merriam, S. B. (2005). Philosophical foundations of adult education (3rd ed.). Malabar, FL: Krieger.
Gibbons, V., Bailey, A., Comeau, P., Schmuck, J., Seymour, S., & Wallace, D. (1980). Toward a theory of self-directed learning: A study of experts without formal training. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 20(2), 41-56. doi: 10.1177/002216788002000205
King, K. P. (2005). Brining transformative learning to life. Malabar, FL: Krieger.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood ( ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Reflection on Impact of Undisclosed Educational Goals on Adult Legal Education

Reflection on Impact of Undisclosed Educational Goals
on Adult Legal Education

B. Shayne
Fordham University
Graduate School of Education

Abstract

This paper reflects the author’s view of the conflicting interests of colleges/universities and adult education in the area of the law as illustrated by the undisclosed goals of those institutions.

Reflection on Impact of Undisclosed Educational Goals

on Adult Legal Education

Educational institutions have espoused a variety of goals over the last three centuries. Each goal has had reasonable aims whether cultural advancement, protection of the dominant view, social change or integration, professionalism, religious, or other. The validity of those goals and outcomes, however, have always been evaluated from an historical perspective, in the context of the provider’s interpretation of their goals, and very often through a revisionist lens which re-aligned those goals with the results actually achieved.

What has generally not been discussed is the implication of the provider undisclosed goals and how that has impacted adult learners in the larger societal setting and in terms of adult education.

Despite their expressed educational or altruistic motives all programs contain some degree of bias or self interest if for no other reason that their primary focus, of necessity, has to be survival of the college or university providing them (Kett, 1994, p. 266-268.) No judgment is made as to whether the motives, goals, or outcomes are valid, good, or bad. The author’s reaction instead relates to the failure of the provider to fully disclose the scope of those goals so as to permit sponsors, learners and other to appreciate and evaluate those goals in relation to their own context.

Consistent with the position of the necessity to fully disclose motive or bias, Shayne discloses that he attended a law school which although at the time of his attendance was part of a university, it had until the year before been an independent degree granting law school. Shayne attended one of the relatively few night/part-time law programs and was one of the youngest members of a class of working adults averaging 32 years of age most of whom already possessed one or more advanced degrees and/or were members of a licensed profession.

The relevancy of this disclosure becomes apparent in Shayne’s reaction as to the impact of undisclosed goals related to legal education as it implicates adult education in the field of law.

Concealment of underlying objectives is hardly unique to education. Indeed in politics and diplomacy it is considered by many to be the norm. But in other areas affecting consumer decisions it has resulted in a dizzying array of state and federal government regulation and professional ethics requirements requiring complete disclosure of self or conflicting interest and substantial disclosure of other facts that a reasonable consumer might find relevant to their decisions. Shayne is not aware of any comparable disclosure requirements existed in the case of education in general and not in the case of legal education.

Review of the development of professional higher education in what is usually presented as a battle solely between schools of thought: the first focused on full time education based upon theoretical or philosophical approach, and the second focused on part time and practical experience, reveals the undisclosed power play based heavily on economic interests and not solely on academic theory.

The battle between what had previously been essentially distinct non-competitive models of legal education and delivery were joined over competition for educational market share and control over the profession.

As higher education tried to sort out its role, university administrators observed the relatively mass market that existed for specialized and part-time education (Kett, 1994, p. 259.) They went after that market.

As a practical matter the established colleges and universities accomplished this by controlling the definition of education and by equatating college/university with that coveted term and the ability to grant degrees which effectively discounted all that was taught or learned except as they provided.

Elite colleges and universities through control over the licensing associations argued that educational standards dictated that they alone should have the right to grant the all prestigious degree. Definitions and standards always benefit their author. Just as the definition of who was covered under the term of equality impacted who in the 18th and early 19th century defined who was considered a proper beneficiary of education (Stubblefield & Keane, 1994a,b, p. 15, 51, 53; Rudolf, 1990a, p. 20) so too did the definition of educational standards in the late 19th and early 20th century seek to preserve dominance of full-time philosophically law schools over those more practically oriented regional or part-time/night time law schools. (Stubblefield & Keane, 1994b, p. 53.)

To the extent that there is oversight of institutions of higher learning it is usually conducted by cooperative associations composed of institutions and/or professionals who have clear motivation for protecting their historical position of exclusivity and control (Kett, 1994, p. 264) and this applies to legal education as well.

With the ability to grant a degree came the ability to attract students especially during periods of Depression (Kett, 1994, p.__.) In the case of Suffolk Law school the difference was a ratio of 5:1 (Kett, 1994, p.__.) Auerbach’s 1997 Unequal justice: lawyers and social change in modern America makes plain the intent of the oversight organization to eliminate adult legal education by denying the right to grant a degree. In a referenced 1920 ALRS report addressing standards for day and night programs, there was an effort to prohibited member schools from “offer[ing] a degree solely for night-school work.” Which “a night-school teacher protested … [was] designed to kill the night-school.” Auerbach, 1997, p 108-112, note 12.)

The underlying goals were not as it relates to part-time adult education was not always so benign as to be considered merely a matter of control over the market. In many instances the superficial goal of improving educational standards was nothing more than a thinly veiled attempt to protect the profession from immigrants who were diluting the field (Kett, 1994, p. 264-265) and who just so happened were also the primary attendee/market for the part-time or night programs (Kett, 1994, p 263.)

The battle for the bastion on higher education as between theoretical and practical has found an ever shifting balance although the effort to thwart market demands for the practical and part-time education continues (Kett, 1994, p. 268.) While regulating agencies, such the ABA in the case of law schools still frown on both part-time/night programs and part-time teachers, (Kett, 1994, p. 268) there appears to be no shortage of applicants for those programs.

While the conversion of certain practices including law, medicine, business and accounting into professions has clearly aided the standing of doctors, businessmen/women, accountants and lawyers (Kett, 1994, p. 258,) but the same institutions which aided in that advancement, because of long standing and undisclosed motives, have rather than democratizing education by increasing access to it and rather than fostering adult education and mobility between levels of employment, careers, and social standing through life-long learning opportunities afforded through continuing and part-time education addressing the needs of working adults (Kett, 1994, p. 261), has arguably thwarted it.

While there is no question as to the long term advantages of a philosophical and theoretical backing for practice of law that does not negate the fact that the push for control over the market by standards which sought to displace part-time and night-schools, effectively put the breaks on much of what today would be termed adult education in the field of law.

The supposed greater access to education through student loans and state supported schools still focuses on full-time students and theory. While it may serve to advance overall culture and further social goals, legal education seems to be resistant to meeting the needs of working adults. As a practical matter the cost of pursuing a legal education whether because of tuition costs or the need to support a family essentially precludes working adults from ever transitioning into law.

Tennant’s 2005 review of the five volume series Adult and Continuing Education noted that “[i]It is ironic that adult education has always positioned itself as ‘marginal’ – the ‘poor cousin’ of education…” (Tennant, 2005, p. 528). In the case of legal education it is more than a perception, it is a reality.

References

Auerbach, J. S. (1997). Unequal justice: lawyers and social change in modern America,

CA: Stanford University Press.
Kett, J. (1994). The pursuit of knowledge under difficulties: From self-improvement to adult

education in America. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
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the book Adult education in the american experience: from the colonial period to the present.,

pgs. 51-61

Reaction to Adult Literacy in the U.S.A

Reaction to Adult Literacy in

the U.S.A

By

Kevin J. Lawrence

Fordham University

Foundations of Adult Education, CTGE 5925

April 07, 2010

The adult literacy issues in the United States have received its share of attention

within the last 30 years of media coverage. There is also the argument that media

coverage of adult literacy has been misleading; the movements that address adult literacy

in this country usually lose steam and come to an abrupt stop while many adults still

remain illiterate. The media has dubbed illiteracy as “a crippling limitation, a barrier to

individual and social advancement and as a problem to be fixed” (Guy, T., 2005). Despite

the exposure adult literacy has received; there still remains an issue of illiterate adults in

the U.S.; the adult literacy issues in this country appear to fade away each time there are

programs developed to address the problem. It is usually tossed aside by socially

conscious elites, government officials, the media and philanthropists who no longer find

interest in adult literacy programs over time (Chisman, F., 2002).

There are also many contributing factors that cause illiteracy among adults; it affects

families and people from all walks of life. There is no profile that can fit an individual of

being illiterate. The low literacy proficiency is relatively common, with between one in five

and one in three adult Americans has sufficient difficulty in reading or computation. The

most common cases of adult illiteracy is found in the African-American, and Hispanic

community; it affects the poor and undereducated (Guy, T., 2005).

The reason stemming for the high illiteracy rate with in these groups is based

upon the demand for high literacy education and skills for employment. The productivity-

enhancing technology and competition for low wages in countries like China and India,

has led many industries and corporations to downsize their work force; though

technology has created jobs; it requires the worker to learn new information and skills

that will keep them employed (Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgartner, 2007). The effect of

the global economy and technology has had a major influence on adult literacy; there is a

desire and need for adults to stay employed and support their families, but the literacy

programs that are needed sometimes fall victim to non-funding by public and private

sources (Chisman, 2002). The presence of the inequality educational system still

affect the African-American, Hispanic and the poor. The last study of illiteracy conducted

by the U.S. Department of Education showed that from 1998-2003, African-Americans

and Hispanics accounted for more than half of the enrollments in adult literacy; the

Hispanics made up 12.9% of the population in the U.S. and the African-American 12.3%.

If you compare these figures to the total U.S. population, it can be seen that the African-

Americans and Hispanics are clearly over represented in the adult literacy proficiency

levels. As noted by Chisman, (2005):

The distribution of literacy proficiency among adults in the American population

clearly reflects the structure of economic, political, and social inequality in American

society.

In 2003, the Department of Education released the President of the United States blueprint for the Reauthorization of Adult Education and Family Literacy Act, Title II of the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) of 1998. It outlined key changes that needed to be made in the law to provide adults better access to improve their skills through high quality research, based programs. Federal funded adult literacy programs are represented and characterized on several grade levels which include:

1. Adult Basic Education (ABE): Grade levels 1-8.

a. Low-level Literacy: Grade levels 1-4.

2. Adult Secondary Education (ASE): Grade levels 9-12 or:

a. General Education Diploma (GED).

3. English as a Second Language (ESL): Teaches the basics of the English language.

The instrument used to test the evaluation of adult’s literacy skills is the Test of Adult Basic Education (TABE), which indicates the current grade level equivalent the adult measures (Chisman, 2002).

It was stated by Guy, T. (2005), that most national leaders and ordinary citizens believed that the way to address adult illiteracy and undereducated adults in this country is to improve the education of children. The issues arises were million of adults with educational problems have been tossed aside-with the focus on improvement of public schools for children. This new shift in momentum has caused the adult literacy programs to suffer from funding and exposure today. There is a shortage of well trained and compensated educators of appropriate programs, of accountability measures, and of stable commitment. The field of adult education and literacy is missing all the great forms of educational achievement and excellence that nations looks for in elementary and secondary education (Guy, T., 2005).

The loss of visibility in the public and private eye, the adult education and literacy has almost disappeared from the national priority list; as a result the literacy field is frustrated in its efforts to make major advancements. The adult literacy and education program in the U.S. has been given a small claim on public resources and is left to fend for its self (Guy, T., 2005). The current trend in the job market requires the individual adult to have higher than a secondary level of education; with the added pressure of today’s recession many undereducated and illiterate adults need adult education and literacy programs in order to compete for jobs heading across the globe.

Reference:

Chisman, F.P. 2002, February, Adult Literacy & The American Dream. New York, New

York, Council for Advancement of Adult Literacy.

Guy, T.C. 2005, The adult literacy education system in the United States. Paper

commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2006, Literacy for Life.

Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001462/146281e.pdf

Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A

COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Boss.

Distant Leadership: Is it Effective Today?

Distant Leadership: Is it Effective Today?

Taylor Bilko

Fordham University

04/07/2010

Effective leadership is at the forefront of success. It has the ability to impact individuals in a number of ways. Leadership has been researched for over a century. Important aspects of effective leadership consist of trust, competency, and authenticity. When a leader is visible, they have the ability to communicate through means of face-to-face interaction. Individuals can easy comprehend one another in such a setting. More than one half of the nonverbal aspects of communication are understood during an interaction (Mckay, Davis & Fanning, 1995). Several purposes such as emotion and direction are missed when nonverbal communication moves out of the picture. In today’s market, businesses and institutions are much more mobile. This allows for individuals from all over the world to be reached through technological means. How does this influence leadership when face-to-face communication becomes nonexistent? Facial expressions serve as a major impact when it comes to communication. What serves as a substitute when leaders communicate virtually? The purpose of this paper is to determine whether leadership in a virtual world can be just as effective as it would in a traditional setting.

With the rise in technology, many institutions and organizations are investing in virtual networks. Facilitation through virtual means is becoming more and more popular through virtual teams, virtual learning communities, and training webinars. Leadership has to take on an entirely different role within a virtual environment. Predictors of effective leadership within a face-to-face environment consist of multiple factors (Kruger, 2009). There are many schools of thought that believe effective leadership can come from personality, behavior, or situational traits. In the end effective leadership comes from the power to influence others. The ability to influence occurs through the practice of clarifying values, inspiring a vision, challenging others, facilitating collaboration, and sustaining recognition (Kouzes & Posner, 2007). Success in leading encourages relationship building and engaging followers to work towards a common vision. I believe that great leaders like Abraham Lincoln and Martin Luther King Jr. had this ability, however, would they be just as successful in a virtual environment?

These leaders are known for their genuine ability to inspire those around them. I believe their speeches best exemplify this characteristic. Speeches such as I Had a Dream and the Gettysburg Address are some of the best known monologues in United States history. These speeches gave a sense of inspiration through verbal and nonverbal communication. Such body language allowed followers to become influenced through the emotion of the leader (Kouzes & Posner, 2007). The portrayal of these emotions allowed leaders such as Abraham Lincoln and Martin Luther King Jr. to develop relationships with others. When it comes to distant communication, the ability to comprehend language through nonverbal communication becomes eliminated when virtual means such as email are used (McKay et al., 1995). How does this affect the ability to influence others?

The ability to influence begins with trust. One of the biggest drawbacks of virtual communication comes from the setback of being able to develop trust within the virtual environment (DeRosa, Hantula, Kock, and D’Arcy, 2004). Communication becomes even more difficult when factors such as time, culture, and language serve as barriers. Issues of confusion, isolation, and distrust can easily erupt. Even the most innovative advancements cannot take away the value of a face-to-face interaction. These individuals who communicate with one another through virtual means are said to be less likely to disclose personal experiences than in a face-to-face setting. This comes from the inability to visualize a personal and safe environment for followers to participate in. Such development takes time to construct.

So how can effective leaders create an environment that is positive and can sustain effective relationship building? The best way to create a safe environment that encourages participation is attempt to create an online presence (Palloff & Pratt, 1999). Creating a “human” connection or online presence with individuals can come from an introductory forum. An introductory forum opens up the technological arena within a safe environment. Online learners are able to briefly talk about themselves, their values, and reason for learning. It is up for the leader to provide positive feedback and encourage such e-collaboration. The initial completion of these tasks helps begin to build the relationship building process. The only way to begin to know someone within a virtual environment is through their traces of dialogue (DeRosa et al., 2004). With that being said, the distant leader must ensure participation and feedback is being provided throughout the course of development. When the leader takes the time to ensure personal connections are being developed, trust can effectively occur (Erskine, 2009).

According to an online survey, close to 75% of the respondents believe in five years social skills will be more essential over technological skills when it comes to effective business management (Kouzes & Posner, 2007). This states the importance of the people running the business rather than the technology being used. The value of effective leadership begins with communication. In my opinion, leadership faces many challenges within a virtual environment; however, effective management can still occur without the impact of nonverbal communication. I believe that if effective leadership can occur within the environments established during the era of Abraham Lincoln and Martin Luther King Jr., then it can occur within any setting. In this case, effective distant leadership occurs through the completion of tasks and consistent participation being provided. Whether this is within an organization or institutional environment, an online presence has to become established. I think investing in virtual resources is a valuable aspect today. It allows adult learners to develop new ways of thinking through means of cohesion. The ability to collaborate with individuals all over the world is at our fingertips. We need to value the growing interest of technology. Adults today have the instinctual need to want to become prepared with the latest trends. Technology is one trend that is here to stay (Palloff & Pratt, 1999).

References

DeRosa, D.M., Hantula, D.A., Kock, N. & D’Arcy, J. (2004). Trust and leadership in virtual teamwork: A media Naturalness perspective. Human Resources Management, 43, 219-232.

Erskine, L. (2009). A question of leadership: What does effective leadership look like in a virtual work environment, and can Web-based leadership operate the same way that face-to-face leadership does? Leadership in Action, 28, 12-13.

Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2007). The Leadership Challenge (3^rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Kruger, M. (2009). The big five of school leadership competencies in the Netherlands. School Leadership and Management, 29, 109-127.

McKay, M., Davis, M. & Fanning, P. (1995). Messages: The Communication Skills Book (2^nd

ed.). Oakland: New Harbinger

Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (1999). Building Learning Communities in Cyberspace: Effective Strategies for the Online Classroom (The Jossey-Bass Higher and Adult Education Series) (1st ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.